DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY

Diffusion of innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through culture. Everett Rogers a professor of communication studies popularized the theory in his book (Diffusion of Innovations); the book was first published in 1962. Rogers argues that diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the participants in a social system. The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span multiple disciplines. Rogers proposes that four main elements influence the spread of a new idea: the innovation itself, communication channels, time, and a social system. This process relies heavily on human capital. The innovation must be widely adopted in order to self-sustain. Within the rate of adoption, there is a point at which an innovation reaches critical mass. The categories of adopters are: innovators, early adopter’s, early majority, late majority, and laggards. Diffusion manifests itself in different ways in various cultures and fields and is highly subject to the type of adopters and innovation-decision process

The central idea of this theory is that diffusion as part of a social system, adopt a new idea, behavior or product. Rogers expounded these elements as- innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption, communication channels- being the means by which messages get from one individual to another; time- rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system; social system- a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal.

LIMITATIONS

There are several limitations of diffusion of innovation theory, which include the following;

·         Much of the evidence for this theory, including the adopter categories did not originate in public health and it was not developed to explicitly apply to adoption of new behaviors or health innovations.

·         It does not foster a participatory approach to adoption of a public health program.

·         It works better with adoption of behaviors rather than cessation or prevention of behaviors.

·         It doesn’t take into account an individual’s resources or social support to adopt the new behavior (or innovation)

This theory has been used successfully in many fields including communication, agriculture, public health, criminal justice, social work and marketing. In public health, diffusion of innovation theory is used to accelerate the adoption of important public health programes that typically aim to change the behavior of a social system. For example, an intervention to address a public health problem is developed and the intervention is promoted to people in a social system with the goal of adoption. The most successful adoption of a public health results from understanding the target population and the factors influencing their rate of adoption. Rogers also identifies six main traditions that impacted diffusion research; anthropology, early sociology, education, industrial sociology and medical sociology. 

REFERENCE.

•  Canadian journal
• Rogers, Everett M (1962). Diffusion of Innovations. Glencoe: Free Press. ISBN 0-612-62843-4.
• Rogers, Everett M. (1983). Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-926650-2.

CONCEPT OF CITIZEN JOURNALISM,SOCIAL MEDIA AND TRADITIONAL MEDIA

The concept of citizen journalism is based upon public citizens playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analysing, and disseminating news and information. They do the work of professional journalists. Citizen journalists are associated with names such as public, democratic, participatory, guerrilla or street journalism.  These journalists have the opportunity to do the work of professional journalists due to the introduction of new media, thus, the internet has introduced the social media platform like Facebook, whatsapp, twitter.

            A professional journalist cannot be everywhere at the same time to cover events and as a result, citizen journalists with sophisticated devices at the time of an incident or event can record pictures, video, audio and disseminate information. Hence act as first hand source of news. Also in societies where the press is censored, these journalists act as an alternative source of news.

Social media, regarded as the future of communication is a countless array of internet based applications and platforms in which they create, share and exchange information and ideas in communities and networks. This new form of media makes the transfer of texts, videos, audio, photos and information in general increasingly fluid among internet users. Platforms like twitter, Facebook, and linked in have created online communities where people can share as much or as little personal information. Social bookmarking tools and news sites such as Digg, Delicious, Reddit and countless others make finding specific information, images or websites simple by assigning or tasking individual sites with searchable keywords.

Traditional media refers to the usually archaic way of disseminating information. Traditional media also known as analogue media or mainstream media comes in the form of print (newspapers, magazines), broadcast (T.V, radio). Grimes(2008) defines the traditional media as ‘those’ companies which create, produce and distribute information and entertainment content which pre-date the commercial business of the internet. He views newspapers, magazines, yellow pages, outdoor advertising, radio and television stations and broadcast networks as traditional media.

 A case in point is sending mail through the post office and reading newspapers whereas sending email, reading electronic newspaper articles on the internet, listening to radio via the internet. Also, the use of mobile phones for taking pictures and sharing information is an example of new or modern ways of doing things.

However, the invention of new media, i.e. social media has posed a great threat to the traditional media. The social media has a number of advantages over the traditional media in the following ways;

First and foremost, the new media gives ultimate satisfaction and feedback to its audience. Traditional media does not give its audience the platform to take part in news production. They are dormant; also they do not have the luxury to choose what segment of news to listen to, because of this, maximum gratification is not derived. There is no information flow from audience to the mainstream media thus comments and opinion. With social media, today audience can choose from a large range of news categories to listen to or read e.g. sports news, educational news and so on. Audiences have the opportunity to express opinions on issues and participate in news production.

Ethics, such as gate keeping performed by mainstream media is forgone by citizen journalists who report to the very core of issues. They do not view any issue as sensational like the mainstream does before selecting what qualifies as news. This singular move by citizen journalist with the use of new media is threatening the work of mainstream journalists.

The fast and quick way of sending and obtaining news and information from citizen journalists via social media has led to a low patronage of traditional news outlets especially the print media. Before these media houses get to the scene of events to cover and process the news before printing, the citizen journalists would have captured and shared to a large number of people within a short period of time, and these audiences would not buy a newspaper to read the same news.

In view of the threat caused by the new media, an entrepreneur and author, Andrew Keen is of the opinion that ‘cult of the amateur’ is undermining great companies who have consistently created value through impacting quality information and education’. Keen says ‘we need to fight back to retain the structures and professions that are in danger of dying out, taking with them concepts such as quality and trust’.

It comes as no surprise that a majority of media houses have adopted the ways of the new media in addition to their traditional ways of doing things. Today during news bulletin, audiences are given the platform to share their views on issues and report news around them. For instance, most news bulletin includes audience forum that allows them to share their views.

Some media houses resort to citizen journalists in various regions to obtain information or news especially in those communities or regions they find themselves. This is to get citizens involved in news process.

The introduction of ICT infrastructure during news bulletin and programs e.g. laptops and auto scripts, instead of reading news on sheet of papers, I Pads, LCD television has made it more technological and all-inclusive.

Infotainment became a welcome relief to the news concentrated bulletins. This is the combination of both information and entertainment in news delivery usually associated with political communication. The use of cartoons in newspapers can be an example.

Finally, traditional media houses have brought their works on-line to reach a larger audience just like citizen journalists e.g. e-newspapers, listening to radio and news bulletins on the internet and sending feedback. Example is peacefmonline.

Although the work of professional journalists leads the battle with the rise of powerful voices who used to be the dormant audience but now doing journalism with the use of new media, traditional media as well as professional journalists are systematically employing new media to maintain the media’s position as the 4^th arm of the state and powerful mouthpiece of society.

SOURCES/REFERENCES

1. Socialmediatoday- The rise of citizen journalists

2. Tufts.edu/social-media-overview- What is Social Media?

3. Huffington post- How Social Media is supporting a fundamental shift in Journalism.

4. New media: theories and applications, Van Schaik publishers - Traditional media vs. New Media.

CHEWING STICK HIGHTENS SEXUAL DRIVE (LOCAL VIAGRA)

I do it in private, not caring that it’s become a scorned ex-lover since the 90s. On Saturdays, after Pepsodent and Listerine, I pull out a hard, light, chewable, juice-releasing stick of “TSWAPEA” and sweep its budding bitterness over every milky spot of enamel. The flavoring flourishes into a fine, addictive tang. And teeth have never stood with more integrity after such tender care, more than just a brush, i discovered that the twigs and roots of certain plant species used in making the chewing stick contain chemical compounds that slow the formation of plaque.

The extracts of other sticks have proven to possess antibacterial and anti-fungal properties. For instance, the twigs of the aforementioned toothbrush tree have been found to help prevent ulcers.In Namibia, chewing sticks made from a plant known as muthala, inhibit the growth of pathogens that cause gum disease, tooth decay, and sore throats. Chewing sticks possess the ability to prevent cavities, as well as strengthen the users' roots and gums.

Not only that, but since the beginning of time, people have searched high and low for substances they could use to stimulate and heighten sexual desire in themselves and others.

Many of such herbs, man has found useful in stimulating and heighten sexual desire include Yohimbe and Ginseng.

Yohimbe comes from the bark of West Africa’s Yohimbe tree and as a sexual stimulant (aphrodisiac) that even veterinarians have used to treat impotence in stallions. It has also become widely available for human use because of the claim; this herbal remedy helped a lot of men overcome impotency by stimulating the nerve center in the spine that controls erection.

Sphenocentrum jollyanum is believed by medicine men to have unusual leading properties, so explaining why the root extract is swallowed for constipation and to increase appetite as well as a stoma-chic in southern Nigeria and Ghana.

Dr. Yinusa Raji, a senior lecturer with the Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, speaking on this wonder herb for stimulating sexual drive confirmed its ability to act as an aphrodisiac.

He said that basically all aphrodisiac substances can be classified into four main types: Narcotics, used to intoxicate the user’s object of desire. The second type is substances that irritate the mucous membrane of the genitals, producing a warm, itching feeling similar to sexual arousal

The other group tends to have the effect of directly increasing sexual desire and prowess, even increasing the intensity of the sensations felt during organism. The last group is herbs that alleviate medical problems that interfere with normal sexual function,such herbs alleviate the symptoms of a variety of genitourinary tract infections, or supplies badly needed vitamins or minerals that are lacking in the diet, so allowing the individual with previously physical problems to function normally.

The use of the plant’s root as a chewing stick he said has been found effective in boosting sexual drive in men due to its tendency to boost the blood’s testosterone level. Basically, the secretion of the hormone, testosterone, is needed for the expression of sexual characteristics or virility and to stimulate male sexual organs.

we know defective sperm are the most common cause of male infertility and this is difficult to treat, so men who still want to have children should be careful to use the herb regularly to boost their sexual drive.

UNRAVELING THE MYTH BEHIND LOCAL APHRODISIAC.

 

The quest continues. Looking at what are considered Aphrodisiacs ,it can be divided into agents that can be classified as “love-potions” – a drink, a substance combined with ritual supposed to have the magic power to make the drinker fall in love with a specified person, mood enhancers and psychoactive drugs, and substances that increase libido and sexual potency, and sexual stamina, for instance "TUENTINI"

Every continent and culture has its fair share of reputed Aphrodisiacs. Since Viagra has been the focus of huge media attention and has created massive public interest in the availability of so-called aphrodisiacs and cures for impotence, this interest also had a knock-on effect which led to a resurgence of sales and general interest in herbal remedies, many of which are from Africa. With the renewed interest in Herbal remedies several traditional aphrodisiacs from Africa have received worldwide interests; prominent amongst them is “AKPETESHIE”.

“AKPETESHIE”is a home-brewed alcoholic spirit produced in Ghana and other West African nations by distilling palm wine or sugar cane juice. Another name for this drink is “APIO”.

The name "AKPETESHIE" was given to the drink with its prohibition: the word comes from a Ga language spoken in greater Accra and means "they are hiding," referring to the secretive way in which non-European inhabitants were forced to consume the beverage. Despite being outlawed, illicit spirits remained commonplace, with reports that even schoolboys were able to easily obtain “AKPETESHEI” through the 1930s. Demand for “AKPETESHIE” and the profits to be made from its sale was enough to encourage the spread of sugar cane cultivation in the Anlo region of Ghana.

 ‘APIO’ OR ‘AKPETESHIE’ is distilled mainly from palm wine and sugarcane. Typically the juice is allowed to ferment over a couple of days. Distilling involves applying intense heat to the fermented juice until it turns into vapour before finally passing through a pipe usually made of copper and then into sieved jars. The setup includes two barrels, one with the boiling fermented juice and the other, a barrel filled with cooling water. Without doubt, the defining feature of the drink is the rather high alcohol content.

The sweetened liquid or wine that comes out is first fermented in large barrels, sometimes with the help of yeast. After this first stage of fermentation fires are built under the barrels in order to bring the liquid to a boil and pass the resulting vapor through a copper pipe within cooling barrels, where it condenses and drips into sieved jars. The boiled juice then undergoes a second stage of fermentation. The resulting spirit is between 40 and 50% alcohol by volume.

The youth of Ghana have` capitalized on the percentage of this drink and also mixes it with other sister drinks like “AGYAPPIAH” “AB3NSUO” and others. Some even call it “LAWYER” because it speaks for them in bed and others also  describes “AKPETESHIE” Aphrodisiac as a true friend of sexually active men and women with a cliche that says Drink “AKPETESHIE” mixture and say goodbye to sexual  incompetence .